#1 Fennoscandia 22%

Origin: Peaks in the Iceland and Norway and declines in Finland, England, and France

#2 Southern France 14.5%

Origin: Peaks in south France and declines in north France, England, Orkney islands, and Scandinavia

#3 Orkney Islands 12.2%

Origin: Peaks in the Orkney islands and declines in England, France, Germany, Belarus, and Poland

#4 Basque Country 11.1%

Origin: Peaks in France and Spain Basque regions and declines in Spain, France, and Germany

#5 Sardinia 10.7%

Origin: Peaks in Sardinia and declines in weaker in Italy, Greece, Albania, and The Balkans

#6 Southeastern India 10.5%

Origin: Endemic to south eastern india with residues in Pakistan

#7 Western Siberia 8.6%

Origin: Peaks in Krasnoyarsk Krai and declines towards east Russia

#8 Tuva 6.8%

Origin: Peaks in south Siberia (Russians: Tuvinian) and declines in North Mongolia

#9 Pima County: The Sonora 2.2%

Origin: Peaks in Central-North America and declines towards Greenland and Eskimos

#10 Northern India 0.8%

Origin: Peaks in North India (Dharkars, Kanjars) and declines in Pakistan

#11 Central America 0.3%

Origin: Peaks in Mexico and Central America with residues in Peru

#12 West Africa 0.3%

Origin: Peaks in Senegal and Gambia and declines in Algeria and Morroco

 

Migration Story A

Ancient ancestry in Austria

Your ancestors came from Austria prior to 491 AD, so let's take a look at what was going on in Austria up to this point:

The Noricum Confederation

Between 200 BC and 15 BC, Austria was ruled by local leaders in a period known as late Iron Age Austria. From around 200 BC, twelve Celtic tribes came together to form a confederation called Noricum under the rule of the Norici. Noricum had productive salt mines (e.g. Salzburg) and high quality iron-ore mines. They traded produce from these with their Roman neighbors at a Roman trading outpost in Magdalensberg.

The Romans Invade

Between 14 BC and 405 AD, Austria was ruled by local leaders in a period known as Roman Austria. Austria was annexed to the Roman Empire and its northern border at the Danube constituted part of the Limes, which separated the Roman Empire from the Germanic tribes inhabiting Central and Eastern Europe. Once the Migration period started the Romans were unable to defend Austria and in 405 AD part of the country was invaded by the Visigoths. People migrated from Italy, Germany, Czech Republic, Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus to Austria due to Roman Invasion and as tribes from Eastern Europe moved west, fleeing the oncoming Huns and seeking out new territory.

Tribes, Huns and the Gothic Kingdoms

Between 406 AD and 526 AD, Austria was ruled by local leaders in a period known as the Migration period. Austria was overrun by a series of Germanic tribes fleeing from the east. After the Visigoths had passed through, much of Austria was conquered by the Huns, which forced a large portion of the population to seek refuge. Hunnish occupation ended with the death of their leader Attila and many Germanic tribes, formerly under Hunnish rule, gained their independence. Tribal warfare drove out the last vestiges of Roman influence and Austria became part of the Ostrogothic Empire. People migrated from Slovakia, Hungary, Czech Republic, and Germany and Central Asia to Austria as a result of further tribal migration including the Huns of Central Asia and the Ostrogoths, originally from Scandinavia.

 

Movement from Austria to Bosnia and Herzegovina

At some point before 491 AD your ancestors moved to Bosnia and Herzegovina. These are the events your ancestors would have lived through in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The Roman Era

Between 9 BC and 400 AD, Bosnia and Herzegovina was ruled by local leaders in a period known as the Roman era. In 9 BC the Romans annexed the area that is now Bosnia and Herzegovina and settled it with Romans citizens from across the empire, introducing Christianity. In 395 AD, when the Roman Empire split, Bosnia and Herzegovina fell within the Byzantine Empire. People migrated from Italy and Greece and elsewhere in the Roman Empire to Bosnia and Herzegovina with the arrival and occupation of the Roman army and assimilation of Bosnia and Herzegovina within the Roman Empire.

The Ostrogothic Kingdom and Tribal Warfare

Between 401 AD and 499 AD, Bosnia and Herzegovina was ruled by local leaders in a period known as the Migration period. When the Byzantine Empire lost control of Bosnia and Herzegovina the invading Ostrogoths incorporated it into the Ostrogothic Kingdom. Over the subsequent decades the Ostrogoths were replaced first by the Alans, an Iranian nomadic people, and then the Huns from Central Asia, whose mighty army caused many Germanic tribes in Eastern Europe to flee to the west. People migrated from Iran, Mongolia, Poland, and Ukraine and Eastern Europe to Bosnia and Herzegovina due to constant raids and invasions by the Ostrogoths, the Persian Alans and Huns, some of whom settled in the region and assimilated with local populations.

 

Movement from Bosnia and Herzegovina to Greece

At some point after 491 AD your ancestors moved to Greece and once they reached there this is what they would have experienced:

The Macedonian Kingdom

Between 323 BC and 146 BC, Greece was ruled by local leaders in a period known as the Hellenistic period. Greek power was at its height under Alexander the Great, but after his death it was divided into the Ptolemaic Kingdom, the Seleucid Empire and the Macedonian Kingdom. The Greek city-states had a degree of autonomy, but king Philip V failed to unite them against the threat of Rome. By 146 BC, after the First and Second Macedonian Wars, Rome had conquered Greece, made Philip its ally and granted the city-states nominal freedom. At the same time, populations moved from Greece to places like the Balkan peninsula, Eastern Europe, and the Middle East and Italy during the conquests of Alexander the Great and the subsequent emigration of Greeks across the empire and Europe for trade and colonization activities.

Roman Greece

Between 145 BC and 330 AD, Greece was ruled by local leaders in a period known as Roman Greece. After the Battle of Corinth, Greece became part of the Roman Empire. Some Greek city-states managed to maintain independence and avoid taxation and the Romans did not replace pre-existing Grecian political and administrative systems. Under Roman rule Greek arts, education and culture continued to flourish and in 212 AD the Roman Empire granted citizenship to all adult men in the Roman world. People migrated from Italy, Albania, Cyprus, Macedonia, Georgia, Bulgaria, and Kosovo and movement around the former Greek Empire to Greece as a result of Roman invasion. At the same time, populations moved from Greece to places like Turkey, Armenia, Albania, and Cyprus and across the Byzantine Empire as Greeks spread widely and were especially respected as teachers and doctors by the Byzantines.

Greece Suffers under the Byzantines

Between 331 AD and 726 AD, Greece was ruled by local leaders in a period known as the Early Byzantine period. The newly Christian Orthodox Greece and the Byzantine Empire prospered as the Roman Empire declined until, in 364 they split. Greece entered a period of prosperity and progressive reform but from the 4th century onwards, was raided by various tribes including Goths, Vandals, Huns, Slavs and Bulgars. Despite improving fortifications, the Byzantine emperors struggled to keep settlers out of the Greek Peninsular and Greece suffered extensive economic damage. People migrated from Romania, Ukraine, Moldova, Bulgaria, and Turkey and other Byzantine countries to Greece due to the immigration and settlement of Slavic people across Greece and the resettlement of Greek-speaking people from Asia Minor to the Greek peninsula. Skilled laborers, traders and artists moved around the Byzantine Empire looking for work. Bulgars were encouraged to settle across Greece by the Byzantine Emperor. At the same time, populations moved from Greece to places like Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro, Albania, and Italy and the Balkan states in response to the expulsion of Slavic people from many Balkans country leaving vacant land and opportunities. The Byzantines frequently moved Greeks around the Empire, as teachers, slaves, soldiers and farmers.

  MIGRATION STORY B

At some point before 459 AD your ancestors moved to Norway. These are the events your ancestors would have lived through in Norway.

The Nordic Iron Age

Between 500 BC and 800 AD, Norway was ruled by local leaders in a period known as the Nordic Iron Age. During this period Norway was relatively stable; it operated under an extended family-based clan system with chieftains ruling over groups of tribes. Agricultural productivity increased and the Norwegian tribes would trade furs and skins with Romans. A writing system was developed, known as runes. People migrated from Germany, Sweden, and Denmark and Central Europe to Norway due to Germanic tribes migrating through Scandinavia and looking for new lands to colonize during the Migration period. At the same time, populations moved from Norway to places like Central Europe with the migration of Gothic Tribes, Lombards, Heruli and Varangians to Russia and the rest of Europe, especially during the Great Migration.

 

Ancient ancestry in Denmark

Your ancestors came from Denmark prior to 459 AD, so let's take a look at what was going on in Denmark up to this point:

The Danish Tribes

Between 400 BC and 101 BC, Denmark was ruled by local leaders in a period known as the Iron Age. The early Danes relied on agriculture and animal husbandry, traded with Romans and had some communication with the Celtic tribes of Central Europe. However, a change in the climate challenged this agricultural system and prompted many local groups to migrate south into Germany. At the same time, populations moved from Denmark to places like Germany and the Netherlands and Central Europe in response to a worsening climate in Scandinavia.

The Danes Adopt Runes

Between 100 BC and 400 AD, Denmark was ruled by local leaders in a period known as the Roman Iron Age. By the 1st century BC, the Roman Empire bordered Denmark to the south and the Roman influence over the Danes increased, with some Danish warriors fighting in the Roman army. Around 200 AD the Danes adopted a written form called runes.

The Danish Kings and Byzantine Trade

Between 400 AD and 800 AD, Denmark was ruled by local leaders in a period known as the Germanic Iron Age. Though the Roman Empire fell, the Danes continued to trade with the Byzantine Empire. Danish trade began to intensify, typically consisting of pottery, glass and ornaments and, by the 8th century, the first traders were establishing more permanent settlements. Many smaller tribal units had formed a confederation under the hegemony of Danish kings. At the same time, populations moved from Denmark to places like England as part of the migration of Germanic tribes, such as the Angles and Saxons, residing in Southern Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands, to England to fill the power vacuum left be Roman retreat.

 

Fennoscandia Story

The area known as Fennoscandia encompasses the countries of Norway, Sweden, Finland, a part of Russia known as the Kola Peninsula. It also included Denmark during the Viking Age, which forms part of greater Scandinavia. The often blonde haired and blue eyed people of this region are known for their intrepid spirit, braving the bitter winters of northern Europe and conquering lands further afield within the continent, even briefly reaching North America.

The retreat of glaciation at the end of the last Ice Age saw the arrival of hunter-gatherers in the north of Europe between 11,000 and 12,000 years ago.¹ The presence of these people is known from archaeological evidence, but where they came from is still unclear and subject to some debate.² It is likely they were from similar populations that represent much of the early migration of small hunter-gatherer bands that moved into Europe during the Paleolithic.

Agriculture appeared in Scandinavia between 4,000 and 6,000 years ago.^3-6 Archaeological evidence has shown that this farming culture originated in Central Europe and spread north into Fennoscandia.⁷ Similar to other regions in Europe, there has been a considerable debate as to whether this evidence for farming meant that immigrants arrived and pushed out the local ancient hunter-gatherers, or whether farming culture was adopted by the people already living in the area.

Recent genetic studies looking at samples of ancient DNA from preserved bones have found inconsistencies between prehistoric people and later farming populations,² suggesting that there may have been replacement of people to some degree. There are two major language groups in Scandinavia, these being the Germanic language of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, and the Finno-Ugric languages of Finland. The division between the Germanic and Finno-Ugric speaking areas has been used as evidence to support the theory that the Baltic may have been a refugia for earlier hunter-gatherers.^2,8 Analysis of Y-chromosome ancestry from Finno-ugric speakers in Scandanavia and other areas points to a high level of heterogeneity. The potential ancient origins of these people date to 12,000 - 14,000 years ago, when they would have travelled on an ancient Paleolithic migration route that may have gone through Central Asia before turning west to Europe.⁹

The consensus among researchers today is that the genomes of the people of Fennoscandia are of a mixed ancestry, combining ancient hunter-gatherers and more recent Germanic farmers. In areas with more extreme cold climates, there remains more original hunter-gatherer influence, likely due to the marginal nature of farming under such conditions. In Finland, some genetic studies have noted potential historic population crashes as evidence for regional genetic distinctiveness, possibly occurring around 3,900 years ago.¹⁰ Surviving on farming alone was perilous in such an extreme climate and there is evidence for a long coexistence of farming and foraging cultures in Finland.¹

Between 600 and 700 A.D., social changes in Scandinavia marked the start of a migration event of a different kind, one that saw the cultures of Scandinavia make their mark on the rest of Europe. It is believed that economic and political stress, as well as a rapid period of agricultural expansion led to a desire to seek resources and land further afield, giving birth to the start of the Viking Age.¹¹ Various small kingdoms and chiefdoms invaded and colonized many countries within Europe. Vikings raided and invaded much of Northern and Western Europe, taking over lands in England, Scotland, and France. They moved east into Russia and moved further west into Iceland, Greenland, and ultimately North America. They briefly settled in what is now Canada’s province of Newfoundland.^12,13 They often mixed with the local populations, as shown by the mixed British Celtic and Norse origins of Iceland that have been identified both through historical and genetic research.^14,15

The age of the Vikings may have ended in medieval times but the movement of people from Scandinavia has continued to the present day. In recent centuries, many have ended up in parts of United States and Canada, often moving into the Midwest, such as Northern Michigan where a distinct Finnish immigrant community has been well established.¹⁶

In the future, we can envision genetic tests that will be able to distinguish between the ancient hunter-gatherer and more recent Germanic farming components. There may also be tests that can link individuals back to ancient DNA extracted from archaeological skeletal material. What may also prove fascinating for historical enthusiasts is the possibility of future tests that are able to distinguish specific migrations of Viking settlers to different areas of Europe.

 

Southern France Story

Europe has seen multiple waves of migration of humans and ancient human ancestors, with Southern France being a major crossroads in such journeys. The people of Southern France today appear to share many commonalities in appearance with their Mediterranean neighbors. At the same time, the region’s position within Europe to the west of the Alps has facilitated a higher rate of movement of people between north and south.

Southern France and much of the surrounding area was inhabited by Neanderthals during the Paleolithic: an early human species that went extinct upon the arrival of modern humans between 35,000 to 50,000 years ago.¹ The area was at the edge of the Paleolithic ice sheets and was a place of refuge for people pushed back by worsening climate conditions further north. This meant constant movement in and out of the region. The earliest modern humans that arrived in Southern France were Ice Age hunter-gatherers. These people are famous for producing some of the earliest cave paintings known to exist in the limestone caves of the Pyrenees.²

Hunter-gatherer subsistence patterns persisted for many millennia and population density remained low. The development of agriculture in the Middle East and its spread into Europe starting 12,000 years ago³ brought major changes to the region, and involved potentially large-scale migration of people along the southern corridor of the Alps. These people brought their languages, which are believed to be part of the Indo-European language family which exists all over Europe today.^4,5 Virtually all of the currently spoken languages in Europe are thought to relate to this expansion of early farmers. In Southern Europe, this track south of the Alps links the Latin languages of Italy, Spain, and France, while Germanic languages are found north of the Alps.⁶ This suggests that the early farming cultures that arrived in France came through the south and proceeded north.

A Bronze Age culture had developed by 1000 B.C.,^7,8 with settlements throughout Southern France. Over the next millennia, Iron Age societies began to appear throughout all of France, and became unified as a culture known as the Celts.⁹ These Celtic societies formed strong links throughout France and into other parts of Northern Europe. These societies were eventually subdued by the Romans who conquered all of present day France, turning it into the Roman province of Gaul.¹⁰ After the breakup of the Roman Empire, the southern area of France has generally remained within the borders of the Kingdom of France, with some fluctuation in Borders on the Catalonian and Italian sides. Similar regional economic practices have seen it stay firmly rooted in the cultures of the Mediterranean.

The level of linguistic diversity in the region may hint at historical populations that were divided based on ethnic divisions. Catalan, Aragonese, and Gascon are Indo-European languages related to French that are still spoken in other areas of the Pyrenees today.¹¹ Aragonese and Gascon have been in decline in recent centuries. While it may not be possible to link these populations back to the earliest societies in the area, they do provide some grounds for investigating local genetic ancestry.

Future genetic testing may be able to distinguish between early hunter-gatherer influences and later agriculturalists. Some studies have found links between Southern France and its Mediterranean neighbors.¹² Research has also found genetic contributions from other migration events such as Semitic and North African components. In the future, we may be able to distinguish these components as well. It may also be possible to determine which specific groups within Southern France (Catalan, Aragonese, or Gascon) an individual may be more likely related to and what languages their ancestors used to speak.

Orkney Islands Story

The Orkneys are a small group of islands that lie off the North Coast of Scotland. They have a unique history of interaction with Neolithic populations to the south and later conquest by Viking Scandinavians populations from the east. The people of this region pride themselves in their Viking and Scottish roots.

The earliest evidence for human habitation of the islands dates to Neolithic, around 6,000 years ago. This period is associated with multiple-chambered tombs and distinctive ceramics that linked these people to mainland Scotland, where they are thought to have originated.^1,2 Evidence for prehistoric hunter-gatherer cultures in the north of the British Isles that predate the arrival of agriculture is limited to a few archaeological sites in the Hebrides and the Western Isles of Scotland. Dating of these sites places human habitation back as far as 8,500 years ago.³ Challenging environmental conditions at the end of the last Ice Age may have prevented earlier establishment of human occupation. Early Neolithic societies appeared in Scotland around 5,000 years ago.⁴ The shift to agriculture is thought to have been slowed by the relatively cold climate and short growing season. In many areas of Northern Britain, archaeological evidence suggests a foraging subsistence strategy that remained in place for long periods after the arrival of agriculture. The arrival of agriculture, known as the Neolithic, brought changes to burial structures such as the shift toward circular tombs as opposed to chambered tombs.^5,6 Fortified structures known as Brochs have been identified which transition from the Neolithic into the Iron Age between 2,500 and 2,000 years ago.⁷

Evidence for interaction between Orkney and the rest of Scotland during the Neolithic and Iron Age is reinforced by archaeological evidence such as stone monuments that are consistent with those in other parts of the British Isles. Archaeological research shows clear cultural continuities with the Picts during the Iron Age,⁸  an ethnic group that inhabited a large part of northeast Scotland.⁹ The strong links between the Orkney Islands and the Scottish mainland would change when Scandinavian invaders arrived around 800 A.D.¹⁰ These invaders took over the islands and maintained control for several centuries. While Norse migration clearly had a substantial impact on Orcadian demographics, archaeological evidence has pointed toward cultural continuity and assimilation between the Norse and the local population.^11,12 Migration to the islands from the Scottish mainland continued both during and after the period of Scandinavian colonization.

The Orkney Islands eventually rejoined Scotland and have been a permanent part of the country since the 15^th century. While distinguishing between ancient and historic migration from Scotland is currently not possible, recent genetic data supports the interpretation that there is not more than a 40% Nordic contribution in the genetic makeup of Shetland and the Orkney Islands as we know them now.¹³

Future testing may reveal Viking or Pictish ancestry, as well as admixture from more recent movement of people. Separate Y-chromosome and mitochondrial DNA lineages may also reveal mixed maternal and paternal ancestries. Genetic testing of ancient mummies found in the Orkneys may also lead to links with ancient DNA.