ELIZABETH MCCANN MASTER'S THESIS ON PENICAULT http://ecommons.luc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1646&context=luc_theses
NAVIGATING A COURSE FROM CAPO DE SAN ANTONIO TO DAUPHIN ISLAND "Cabo San Antonio, after which we altered course toward Dauphin Island, .." https://books.google.com/books?id=no3fmD0ASTEC&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=cabo+de+san+antonio+to+dauphin+island&source=bl&ots=bsiTlycYPE&sig=9yd_ylZ_ybgYe1RS3zf3hTw2rHk&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiZ8NrAn9DLAhXI6CYKHT0GCK4Q6AEIJjAB#v=onepage&q=cabo%20de%20san%20antonio%20to%20dauphin%20island&f=false
TRAIL OF TEARS @ DAUPHIN ISLAND http://etd.auburn.edu/bitstream/handle/10415/2184/Haveman.pdf?sequence=2
Thus, despite promises to allow the Creeks to remain in central Alabama, the federal government ordered all the Creeks to Mobile Point. Nearly four thousand Creeks, including relatives of the Creeks fighting in Florida and those captured hiding in the swamps, were congregated near Montgomery in preparation for descending the Alabama River in steamboats. The Montgomery Advertiser reported the condition of the Creeks and in an article noted that, "the spectacle exhibited by them is truly heart rending; with all their cruelties, they are human beings and no man of feeling can look upon their present destitute condition . . . while our citizens are rolling in ease and luxury, those who are natives of the country are in the most abject poverty, dependent for their subsistence on the charity of the government." The Creeks left Montgomery on three steamboats. The first detachment of about eight hundred Creeks traveled on the JOHN NELSON and arrived at Mobile Point on March 18. The second and third detachments, traveling on the Chippewa and Bonnets O Blue, arrived at Mobile Point the following day. The agents established an encampment for the Creeks while they waited the arrival of the warriors from Florida. The news of the Creek families having been removed to Mobile Point eventually reached the Creek warriors fighting in Florida. They probably found out from warriors who were furloughed to Mobile Point to recover from illnesses they had acquired in Florida. Jesup reported that, while some of the warriors "were satisfied," with the decision, many others were angry. The news of their relocation particularly angered the Lower Creeks and it complicated the government‘s war with the Seminoles. In fact, Jesup noted that the Lower Creeks fighting in Florida, "if not disposed to favor the Seminoles are at least not very zealous in our cause. With the exception of a very small portion of them they were zealous and true until they received information of the removal of their families from Alabama, and the outrages committed upon them there." Jesup noted that the Upper Creeks "do not participate with the Lower Creeks in the excitement produced by recent events" and he attributed this to the fact that many of their family members had emigrated with Opothle Yoholo the previous fall. Jesup did observe, however, that the Upper Creeks were "broken down by hard service and disease—are unfit for duty and are extremely anxious to join their families." Indeed, at least one Creek soldier committed suicide while in Florida. While at Mobile Point, the agents overseeing the Creeks, along with Creek volunteers, went on reconnaissance trips around Mobile Point to search for Creek refugees hiding in the swamps. Some were believed to have participated in the Second Creek War or were aiding the Seminoles, while others fled to escape emigration. In late April 1837, agents collected a number of Creeks including a few Yuchi refugees hiding near Black Water Bay. Agents used interpreters and even the captured prisoners themselves to coax the refugees from their camps. On April 27, ―two hostile men, a woman and child‖ surrendered to agents and later that day, thirty-seven ―friendly‖ Creeks also gave themselves up. On April 30, thirty-two more ―hostile‖ Creeks surrendered. These Creeks, seventy total, embarked on the steamboat Watchman for Pensacola. During their journey, the Watchman came under the protection of the frigate Constellation and its guns. At Pensacola, the Creeks were transferred to the steamboat Champion and arrived at Mobile Point at one o‘clock in the afternoon on May 1. Almost three weeks later, the Champion transported thirty-three more fugitive Creeks to Mobile Point. Also on board was Hobiochee Yoholo, a Creek volunteer serving in Florida who was permitted a leave-of-absence to visit his family at Mobile Point after the death of his brother at Pensacola. The expeditions to apprehend more fugitive Creeks continued into the late summer 1837. In June 1837 agents traveled to Alaqua Creek in Florida in search of a number of fugitive Creek camps. Many of the Creeks hiding in the swamps of Florida were victimized by American soldiers or local whites. Agents found a number of the Creeks‘ old camp grounds which were broken up soon after a number of Indians were massacred nearby. The attack, which occurred near the end of May 1837, seven miles from La Grange, Florida at the edge of a large swamp, was committed by other Indians under the sanction of American commanding officers. There, in a ―space of about fifteen or twenty feet in diameter, [was] where the poor women with children upon their backs were inhumanly butchered the cries of the children were distinctly heard, at a house distant a quarter of a mile, after their mothers were shot down the children‘s brains were deliberately knocked out—the women‘s Ears cut off, for the purpose of obtaining their Ear rings and in several instances scalped.‖ Agents noted that many of the Creek refugees were victimized by ―so many barbarous outrages‖ that many were afraid to emerge from their hiding places.28 This was even true if the Creeks wanted to surrender to the authorities. For instance, on a number of occasions, fugitives attempted to give themselves up peacefully but every time they tried they were shot at by whites. As a result, these Creeks were understandably skittish and the agents used Creek scouts and interpreters who accompanied them to coax the fugitives from their camps. Once found, these Creeks were described as having ―suffered severely in different skirmishes with their troops and were measurably destitute of clothing, much dispirited and nearly broken down with fatigue.‖ The agents and friendly Creeks continued through the woods to a swamp between Pine Log Creek and the Choctawhatchee River, where they found another camp of fugitive Creeks. Sixteen or eighteen of the Creeks surrendered, but twenty men and ―several women and children refused‖ noting that they wanted to settle among the Seminoles. The agents also searched the Yellow River and East Bay where a group of fugitive Creeks had made their headquarters. While federal agents were trying to capture the refugee Creeks in south Alabama,
PAGE 338
over two thousand Creeks still remained at Mobile Point waiting for their warriors to be discharged from service in Florida. While the delay in the return of the Creek warriors from Florida had allowed the Creek family members in Alabama to be victimized by white settlers, the delay also allowed the Creeks now at Mobile Point to be exposed to sickness. The first death occurred on March 24, and by early July, ninety-three Creeks had died at Mobile Point. Mobile Point, agents observed, was ―exceedingly unhealthy and many of the children have died‖ from diarrhea which the agents believed the Creeks contracted from drinking stagnant water. Mobile Point turned out to be a breeding ground for illnesses, including diarrhea, dysentery, and intermittent fever. Agents reported that that as a result of the diseases, ―the Creek Indians at [Mobile Point] are becoming very discontented‖ and ―the citizens in the vicinity are becoming alarmed.‖ Some Creeks, likely trying to escape the disease, fled Mobile Point and made their way into the interior of Florida. Almost fifty Creeks, including women and children, were apprehended on the Perdido River and Escambia Bay. The sick were placed on beds made of planks. Soldiers at the post, however, removed the planks which forced the sick Creeks ―to lie on the hard bricks exposed to the dampness of the earth.‖ Some Creeks required extreme treatment. For instance one Creek Indian needed an arm amputated and was transferred to a hospital in Mobile. Compounding the problem was that the contractors of the Alabama Emigrating Company failed to furnish the Creeks with fresh beef while at Mobile Point.56 While the contractors searched local farms for fresh meat, many Creeks took matters into their own hands. Residents of south Alabama noted that many Creeks, in parties of between five and twenty individuals, fled their encampment at Mobile Bay to hunt white settlers‘ livestock. These Creek hunters were scattered over a large area between Mobile Bay and the Perdido River. Oystermen at Bon Secour sold the Creeks ammunition and whiskey, and many residents feared that, in addition to the loss of their livestock, the Creeks would join the Seminoles. But the sickness and disease among the Creeks at Mobile Point became so bad that agents had little choice but to move the Creeks to a healthier location. In June 1837, Mathew Bateman, who had returned from accompanying Opothle Yoholo‘s detachment to Fort Gibson, along with another agent, traveled by boat to Dauphin Island to explore possible camp sites. Sensing that the land was no healthier than that at Mobile Point the agents rejected Dauphin Island as a possible location. But agents continued to scout locations. On June 23, an emigrating agent, an assistant surgeon, and thirty-eight Creek headmen, traveled on the steamboat Farmer to the islands between Mobile Point and Bay St. Louis, Mississippi—including Cat Island, Ship Island, and Horn Island—to look for healthier land. Horn Island and Ship Island were rejected by the Creeks ―in consequence of the barrenness of the soil, the abundance of musquetoes and the low situation of the ground.‖ Moreover, the proprietor of Cat Island refused to let the Creeks occupy that place. Eventually, Pass Christian, Mississippi, was selected as the site of the new encampment because it was ―high, dry, and airy, with three or four springs of excellent water and beautifully shaded with large oaks, hickory and other flourishing trees.‖ It was also a refuge for residents of New Orleans during the sickly season of summer.60 The agents moved the Creeks to the wharf at Mobile Point in anticipation of taking the John Nelson to Pass Christian.61 John Page, who oversaw the emigration, reported that they had ―great difficulty getting [the Creeks] on board the Boat there were a great number sick many of them died on the warf before they could get on board and some died immediately after they embarked and we had to bury them, this detained the Boats some time.‖ On the evening of July 7, 1837 the first detachment of Creeks left Mobile Point for Pass Christian. They arrived the afternoon of the following day. Compounding their misery, on the boat‘s return to pick up another detachment, a storm blew in and the boats could not dock at the wharf. The storm lasted two days forcing the Creeks to remain at Mobile Point. The agents reported that they did all they could to shield the Creeks from the weather but the storm still ―rendered the situation of the Indians very unpleasant.‖ The Creeks remained on the wharf through the storm because they were unwilling to ―spoil their Physic,‖ by returning to their former encampment.62 It took a number of days to ferry the Creeks to Pass Christian. The last of the detachmentsarrived at Pass Christian in the third week of July. Despite the death and disease, there were at least twenty-three births while the Creeks were at Mobile Point.63 Although Pass Christian was a much healthier location, many Creeks who had contracted their illnesses at the previous, camp died. In fact, within days of arriving at Pass Christian, twenty-five Creeks died over a two day period. By July 31, 1837, eightyfour Creeks had died at Pass Christian.64 Most of these were young children or the elderly. By August, however, the number of new cases of sickness had decreased sharply and agents noted that ―the sick are convalescing very rapidly.‖65 Moreover, agents reported that the Creeks were ―perfectly satisfied‖ with their new camp. Agents purchased cloth and made tents for the party. The contractors furnished fresh beef, bacon, corn, and beans ―so the Indians have their choice of Rations.‖66 Observers, who visited the Creeks‘ camp at Pass Christian, reported that ―‗their tents are rude and slight, though some of them betray a neatness almost amounting to elegance; for even with these children of nature there are evidently classes or grades. There is too, an aristocratic or ‗West End‘ of the encampment, where the squaws are better dressed—where the papoose
SHIP ISLAND HISTORIC RESOURCE STUDY 1984 http://www.nps.gov/guis/learn/historyculture/upload/Historic%20Research%20Study%20Ship%20Island.pdf
NAVIGATING A COURSE FROM CAPO DE SAN ANTONIO TO DAUPHIN ISLAND "Cabo San Antonio, after which we altered course toward Dauphin Island, .." https://books.google.com/books?id=no3fmD0ASTEC&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=cabo+de+san+antonio+to+dauphin+island&source=bl&ots=bsiTlycYPE&sig=9yd_ylZ_ybgYe1RS3zf3hTw2rHk&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiZ8NrAn9DLAhXI6CYKHT0GCK4Q6AEIJjAB#v=onepage&q=cabo%20de%20san%20antonio%20to%20dauphin%20island&f=false
TRAIL OF TEARS @ DAUPHIN ISLAND http://etd.auburn.edu/bitstream/handle/10415/2184/Haveman.pdf?sequence=2
Thus, despite promises to allow the Creeks to remain in central Alabama, the federal government ordered all the Creeks to Mobile Point. Nearly four thousand Creeks, including relatives of the Creeks fighting in Florida and those captured hiding in the swamps, were congregated near Montgomery in preparation for descending the Alabama River in steamboats. The Montgomery Advertiser reported the condition of the Creeks and in an article noted that, "the spectacle exhibited by them is truly heart rending; with all their cruelties, they are human beings and no man of feeling can look upon their present destitute condition . . . while our citizens are rolling in ease and luxury, those who are natives of the country are in the most abject poverty, dependent for their subsistence on the charity of the government." The Creeks left Montgomery on three steamboats. The first detachment of about eight hundred Creeks traveled on the JOHN NELSON and arrived at Mobile Point on March 18. The second and third detachments, traveling on the Chippewa and Bonnets O Blue, arrived at Mobile Point the following day. The agents established an encampment for the Creeks while they waited the arrival of the warriors from Florida. The news of the Creek families having been removed to Mobile Point eventually reached the Creek warriors fighting in Florida. They probably found out from warriors who were furloughed to Mobile Point to recover from illnesses they had acquired in Florida. Jesup reported that, while some of the warriors "were satisfied," with the decision, many others were angry. The news of their relocation particularly angered the Lower Creeks and it complicated the government‘s war with the Seminoles. In fact, Jesup noted that the Lower Creeks fighting in Florida, "if not disposed to favor the Seminoles are at least not very zealous in our cause. With the exception of a very small portion of them they were zealous and true until they received information of the removal of their families from Alabama, and the outrages committed upon them there." Jesup noted that the Upper Creeks "do not participate with the Lower Creeks in the excitement produced by recent events" and he attributed this to the fact that many of their family members had emigrated with Opothle Yoholo the previous fall. Jesup did observe, however, that the Upper Creeks were "broken down by hard service and disease—are unfit for duty and are extremely anxious to join their families." Indeed, at least one Creek soldier committed suicide while in Florida. While at Mobile Point, the agents overseeing the Creeks, along with Creek volunteers, went on reconnaissance trips around Mobile Point to search for Creek refugees hiding in the swamps. Some were believed to have participated in the Second Creek War or were aiding the Seminoles, while others fled to escape emigration. In late April 1837, agents collected a number of Creeks including a few Yuchi refugees hiding near Black Water Bay. Agents used interpreters and even the captured prisoners themselves to coax the refugees from their camps. On April 27, ―two hostile men, a woman and child‖ surrendered to agents and later that day, thirty-seven ―friendly‖ Creeks also gave themselves up. On April 30, thirty-two more ―hostile‖ Creeks surrendered. These Creeks, seventy total, embarked on the steamboat Watchman for Pensacola. During their journey, the Watchman came under the protection of the frigate Constellation and its guns. At Pensacola, the Creeks were transferred to the steamboat Champion and arrived at Mobile Point at one o‘clock in the afternoon on May 1. Almost three weeks later, the Champion transported thirty-three more fugitive Creeks to Mobile Point. Also on board was Hobiochee Yoholo, a Creek volunteer serving in Florida who was permitted a leave-of-absence to visit his family at Mobile Point after the death of his brother at Pensacola. The expeditions to apprehend more fugitive Creeks continued into the late summer 1837. In June 1837 agents traveled to Alaqua Creek in Florida in search of a number of fugitive Creek camps. Many of the Creeks hiding in the swamps of Florida were victimized by American soldiers or local whites. Agents found a number of the Creeks‘ old camp grounds which were broken up soon after a number of Indians were massacred nearby. The attack, which occurred near the end of May 1837, seven miles from La Grange, Florida at the edge of a large swamp, was committed by other Indians under the sanction of American commanding officers. There, in a ―space of about fifteen or twenty feet in diameter, [was] where the poor women with children upon their backs were inhumanly butchered the cries of the children were distinctly heard, at a house distant a quarter of a mile, after their mothers were shot down the children‘s brains were deliberately knocked out—the women‘s Ears cut off, for the purpose of obtaining their Ear rings and in several instances scalped.‖ Agents noted that many of the Creek refugees were victimized by ―so many barbarous outrages‖ that many were afraid to emerge from their hiding places.28 This was even true if the Creeks wanted to surrender to the authorities. For instance, on a number of occasions, fugitives attempted to give themselves up peacefully but every time they tried they were shot at by whites. As a result, these Creeks were understandably skittish and the agents used Creek scouts and interpreters who accompanied them to coax the fugitives from their camps. Once found, these Creeks were described as having ―suffered severely in different skirmishes with their troops and were measurably destitute of clothing, much dispirited and nearly broken down with fatigue.‖ The agents and friendly Creeks continued through the woods to a swamp between Pine Log Creek and the Choctawhatchee River, where they found another camp of fugitive Creeks. Sixteen or eighteen of the Creeks surrendered, but twenty men and ―several women and children refused‖ noting that they wanted to settle among the Seminoles. The agents also searched the Yellow River and East Bay where a group of fugitive Creeks had made their headquarters. While federal agents were trying to capture the refugee Creeks in south Alabama,
PAGE 338
over two thousand Creeks still remained at Mobile Point waiting for their warriors to be discharged from service in Florida. While the delay in the return of the Creek warriors from Florida had allowed the Creek family members in Alabama to be victimized by white settlers, the delay also allowed the Creeks now at Mobile Point to be exposed to sickness. The first death occurred on March 24, and by early July, ninety-three Creeks had died at Mobile Point. Mobile Point, agents observed, was ―exceedingly unhealthy and many of the children have died‖ from diarrhea which the agents believed the Creeks contracted from drinking stagnant water. Mobile Point turned out to be a breeding ground for illnesses, including diarrhea, dysentery, and intermittent fever. Agents reported that that as a result of the diseases, ―the Creek Indians at [Mobile Point] are becoming very discontented‖ and ―the citizens in the vicinity are becoming alarmed.‖ Some Creeks, likely trying to escape the disease, fled Mobile Point and made their way into the interior of Florida. Almost fifty Creeks, including women and children, were apprehended on the Perdido River and Escambia Bay. The sick were placed on beds made of planks. Soldiers at the post, however, removed the planks which forced the sick Creeks ―to lie on the hard bricks exposed to the dampness of the earth.‖ Some Creeks required extreme treatment. For instance one Creek Indian needed an arm amputated and was transferred to a hospital in Mobile. Compounding the problem was that the contractors of the Alabama Emigrating Company failed to furnish the Creeks with fresh beef while at Mobile Point.56 While the contractors searched local farms for fresh meat, many Creeks took matters into their own hands. Residents of south Alabama noted that many Creeks, in parties of between five and twenty individuals, fled their encampment at Mobile Bay to hunt white settlers‘ livestock. These Creek hunters were scattered over a large area between Mobile Bay and the Perdido River. Oystermen at Bon Secour sold the Creeks ammunition and whiskey, and many residents feared that, in addition to the loss of their livestock, the Creeks would join the Seminoles. But the sickness and disease among the Creeks at Mobile Point became so bad that agents had little choice but to move the Creeks to a healthier location. In June 1837, Mathew Bateman, who had returned from accompanying Opothle Yoholo‘s detachment to Fort Gibson, along with another agent, traveled by boat to Dauphin Island to explore possible camp sites. Sensing that the land was no healthier than that at Mobile Point the agents rejected Dauphin Island as a possible location. But agents continued to scout locations. On June 23, an emigrating agent, an assistant surgeon, and thirty-eight Creek headmen, traveled on the steamboat Farmer to the islands between Mobile Point and Bay St. Louis, Mississippi—including Cat Island, Ship Island, and Horn Island—to look for healthier land. Horn Island and Ship Island were rejected by the Creeks ―in consequence of the barrenness of the soil, the abundance of musquetoes and the low situation of the ground.‖ Moreover, the proprietor of Cat Island refused to let the Creeks occupy that place. Eventually, Pass Christian, Mississippi, was selected as the site of the new encampment because it was ―high, dry, and airy, with three or four springs of excellent water and beautifully shaded with large oaks, hickory and other flourishing trees.‖ It was also a refuge for residents of New Orleans during the sickly season of summer.60 The agents moved the Creeks to the wharf at Mobile Point in anticipation of taking the John Nelson to Pass Christian.61 John Page, who oversaw the emigration, reported that they had ―great difficulty getting [the Creeks] on board the Boat there were a great number sick many of them died on the warf before they could get on board and some died immediately after they embarked and we had to bury them, this detained the Boats some time.‖ On the evening of July 7, 1837 the first detachment of Creeks left Mobile Point for Pass Christian. They arrived the afternoon of the following day. Compounding their misery, on the boat‘s return to pick up another detachment, a storm blew in and the boats could not dock at the wharf. The storm lasted two days forcing the Creeks to remain at Mobile Point. The agents reported that they did all they could to shield the Creeks from the weather but the storm still ―rendered the situation of the Indians very unpleasant.‖ The Creeks remained on the wharf through the storm because they were unwilling to ―spoil their Physic,‖ by returning to their former encampment.62 It took a number of days to ferry the Creeks to Pass Christian. The last of the detachmentsarrived at Pass Christian in the third week of July. Despite the death and disease, there were at least twenty-three births while the Creeks were at Mobile Point.63 Although Pass Christian was a much healthier location, many Creeks who had contracted their illnesses at the previous, camp died. In fact, within days of arriving at Pass Christian, twenty-five Creeks died over a two day period. By July 31, 1837, eightyfour Creeks had died at Pass Christian.64 Most of these were young children or the elderly. By August, however, the number of new cases of sickness had decreased sharply and agents noted that ―the sick are convalescing very rapidly.‖65 Moreover, agents reported that the Creeks were ―perfectly satisfied‖ with their new camp. Agents purchased cloth and made tents for the party. The contractors furnished fresh beef, bacon, corn, and beans ―so the Indians have their choice of Rations.‖66 Observers, who visited the Creeks‘ camp at Pass Christian, reported that ―‗their tents are rude and slight, though some of them betray a neatness almost amounting to elegance; for even with these children of nature there are evidently classes or grades. There is too, an aristocratic or ‗West End‘ of the encampment, where the squaws are better dressed—where the papoose
SHIP ISLAND HISTORIC RESOURCE STUDY 1984 http://www.nps.gov/guis/learn/historyculture/upload/Historic%20Research%20Study%20Ship%20Island.pdf
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